Two of the top wildlife plants are oaks and pines.  These trees produce large, nutritious seeds.  It may seem strange that a tree could sacrifice so many of its seeds and still reproduce.  But by strategically producing bumper crops in some years and very little in others, the trees provide an erratic food supply to limit the population growth of the seedeaters.  Birds, squirrels and other small rodents disperse the seeds by caching them for later use.  Forgotten seeds may sprout and grow into new trees.

 

 

   The seeds of other conifers, such as true firs, spruces, Douglas Fir, hemlocks, larches, and cedars are also important food sources for many animals.  Other deciduous trees and shrubs that bear nutritious seeds include: maples, birches, mesquite, beeches, alders, hickories & pecans, elms, hazelnuts and ashes.

 

 

 

 

    Many herbaceous plants produce seeds that are eaten by wildlife.  Although people may consider many of these plants weeds, they are often important food sources for many animals.  Many landscape gardeners will find it very difficult to accept the idea of growing a “weed patch;” but those that are committed to sharing this planet with other species may be able to find a way to integrate it into their design.  Try to stick with species that are native to your area and make sure to eradicate any non-natives that are considered noxious weeds in your state or county.

     Most grass seeds are eaten by wildlife, especially cultivated crops such as corn, wheat and oats, as well as wild bristlegrasses (Setaria sp.) and panicgrasses (Panicum sp.).

High wildlife value weed seeds
ragweeds	Ambrosia sp.
pigweeds	Amaranthus sp.
knotweeds	Polygonum sp.
filarees	Erodium sp.
sunflowers	Helianthus sp.
lambsquarters	Chenopodium sp.
clovers	Trifolium sp.
Russian thistle	Salsola kali
doveweeds	Croton sp.
turkey mullein	Eremocarpus stigerus
tarweeds	Madia & Hemizonia sp.
deervetches	Lotus sp.
chickweed	Stellaria media
star thistles	Centaurea sp.
dandelion	Taraxacum sp.
sheep sorrel	Rumex sp.

   The above table lists several non-grass weed plants with seeds–arranged with the most valuable at the top.  It is interesting to note that many of the weeds that are most valuable to wildlife are some of the most troublesome weeds.  I often wonder if the weeds that pop up in my garden have been transported there by some wild creature.

    Many wetland plants are important food sources for wildlife.  If you are lucky enough to have a pond or other water feature/wetland in your landscape, you may want to include some of these plants.  The plants listed in the following table include not only those with seeds that are eaten but plants that have foliage or tubers eaten as well.  Wetland areas are very important to fish, amphibians, waterbirds, and several species of invertebrates.

High wildlife value wetland plants.

Pondweeds	Potamogeton sp.
Bulrushes	Scirpus sp.
Smartweeds	Polygonum sp.
algae
Widgeongrass	Ruppia maritima
sedges	Carex sp.
spikerushes	Eleocharis sp.
Wild rice	Zizania aquatica
Wild millets	Echinochloa sp.
cordgrasses	Spartina sp.
naiads	Najas sp.
Wild celery	Vallisneria spiralis
duckweeds	Several genera
Saltgrasses	Distichlis sp.
Horned pond weed	Zannichellia palustris
Burreeds	Sparganium sp.
waterlilies	Nymphaea
arrowheads	Sagittaria sp.

 

 

   Birds: Waterbirds, such as ducks and geese, feed mainly on plants such as pondweed and bulrushes but may also eat fish, crustaceans or mollusks.  Marshbirds or shorebirds, such as cranes and herons, eat more crustaceans, worms, insects and mollusks.  Gamebirds, such as grouse, turkey and doves, rely mostly on plant buds, leaves, fruits and seeds. Corvids, such as crows, ravens & jays are omnivorous, and will eat insects, nestlings, small mammals, berries, fruits, seeds, and carrion. Songbirds also have wide ranging diets—including seeds, berries and insects.  Birds of Prey, such as hawks and owls, eat small rodents, birds and fish.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   Mammals: Hoofed Browsers feed almost exclusively on plants; Deer and elk mostly on the tender shoots of trees and shrubs; Bison and antelope mostly on grass and herbs.  Small Rodents, such as rats, mice, and squirrels feed mainly on seeds and nuts.  Moles, shrews and bats feed almost entirely on insects or worms.  Larger rodents, such as beaver, mountain beaver and porcupine, as well as rabbits and hares feed almost exclusively on leaves, twigs or bark.  Skunks are mostly insectivorous but will eat other small animals and berries.  Opossums, raccoons and bears are omnivorous.  Carnivores include: weasels, badgers, foxes, coyotes, wolves, lynx, bobcat and mountain lions. 

 

    Reptiles: Lizards feed mostly on insects, spiders, earthworms and other invertebrates.  Most snakes are completely carnivorous with a varied diet from invertebrates and bird’s eggs to other small vertebrates.  Most turtles are more herbivorous, feeding on fruits, leaves, tender shoots or aquatic plants, some will also eat invertebrates and small waterfowl.

  

 

   Amphibians:  Frog and toad tadpoles are mostly herbivores, adults live mostly on insects.  Salamanders are largely carnivorous, feeding on worms, sowbugs, insects and crustaceans.

 

 

 

   Fish: Young fry may feed on phytoplankton or algae, otherwise fish generally consume invertebrates or smaller fish.

 

 

 

 

   Insects and other invertebrates:  Many people may not be anxious to invite these “creepy crawlies” into their garden.  But as you can see from the above list, many animals depend on invertebrates for food.  They are an important part of the food web.  Broad use of pesticides can severely impact the availability of these important food sources and disrupt the balance of predator to prey.  Invertebrates may eat plants, nectar, decaying matter, or other invertebrates.

 

 

    I recently went to a workshop on identifying amphibians and their egg-masses.  It was put on by the Stream Team of Thurston County and was taught at the LOTT Wet Center by Marc Hayes, a Senior Research Scientist and herpetologist from the Washington State Department of Fish & Wildlife. They were training volunteers to help survey the populations of amphibians in several urban wetlands in and around Olympia.

    I am fortunate to have good amphibian habitat on my property. I have an “ephemeral” pond that dries up in the summer.   Pacific Tree Frogs seem to lay their eggs as long as water is there.  Dr. Hayes said they may breed for over 2 months, whereas most other species only breed for a week or two. We love listening to their chorus during evenings in spring—temperatures have to be above 40°F before they start their chorus— some say that if you count the number of ribbits in 14 seconds and add the result to 40, you will get the approximate outside temperature.

   I provided tadpoles every year for my son’s classes when he was in elementary school.   A couple years ago, I went hunting for frog eggs in the wetland at the back of my property and brought back a huge gelatinous mass. I was surprised and delighted to discover Northwestern Salamander “sallywogs” had hatched out.

   Whenever I collect amphibian eggs or tadpoles, I always make sure to keep plenty of the pond water and some grass, too.  Keeping a balanced ecosystem gives the tadpoles a better chance of survival. Recently, I spoke with someone who said that they had bad luck with raising tadpoles—it sounded like they tried to keep the water too clean. Tadpoles are largely vegetarian and will eat algae and the grass in the tank. You can supplement by feeding them fish food flakes, too.   Sallywogs eat insects and other invertebrates, but they will eat tadpoles and cannibalize other sallywogs, too.  Adult frogs eat mostly insects. I usually release them in my outside fountain before they completely metamorphose so they can find their own prey. Some people are critical of the algae-green-tinged water in my fountain.  I clean it out later in the summer, but I usually find one remaining salamander still living there!

   Amphibians have become one of the indicator species of a healthy ecosystem. They are sensitive to pollution and to invasive diseases, such as the Chytrid fungus. You can help out by creating your own frog pond. It is not hard; you just have to be willing to accept having some algal growth. You can dig a pond in the ground, but you may need a pond liner if the water drains away too quickly. Or you can have an above ground water feature, pool or fountain. An important step is introducing natural pond flora & fauna to your pond by getting some pond detritus from a friend or neighbor along with the frog eggs or tadpoles. Dr. Hayes adds a feeder goldfish to each of his pools to control mosquitoes.

   It is fun and educational to see what else appears. One of the most fascinating insects is the Caddis Fly larva that makes a cocoon of bits of debris. If you have a microscope, you can see and study the tiny pond critters, too.

   In this day and age, it is hard to get the kids outside away from video games and TV, but whenever my son’s friends come over and I kick them outside, they end up knee deep in the pond searching for frogs!

(This article was first published in the Peninsula Gateway on February 13, 2013)

    If your landscape is designed to harbor a healthy habitat for a variety of creatures, you will have less of a problem with pest species.   Frogs continue to lay eggs as long as there is water in our seasonal pond—it always dries up before all the tadpoles grow up.  Sometimes we rescue a few and put them in my fountain.  Visitors often tell me I should clean out the algae, but I don’t want to disrupt the small ecosystem contained therein!  Often there are salamander larvae along with the frog tadpoles.  Although tadpoles are mostly herbivorous, adult frogs and salamanders are mostly carnivorous, eating insects, worms, slugs and even bigger prey depending on the size of the frog or salamander.  I enjoy hearing a frog’s ribbit in my greenhouse and am happy to let it hunt for prey in there!

    I rarely have trouble with slugs.  I am convinced it is because of the predator species that live in and around my garden.  It is amazing that creatures you rarely even see can be helping to control the ones that could potentially cause a lot of damage.  Although frogs, salamanders, lizards, birds and other predators may help to control slugs, I believe that garter snakes have the biggest impact.  We actually found a garter snake one time that was in the process of eating a slug!

    Few reptiles live here in the cool Pacific Northwest.  Being poikilothermic or “cold-blooded,” they hibernate during cold spells and only come out when it is warmer to bask in the sun.  In Western Washington, there are two turtle species; two lizards, a Rubber Boa, and three species of garter snakes: the Common Garter Snake, the Western Terrestrial Garter Snake and the Northwestern Garter Snake.

   Garter snakes hibernate in aggregations; hundreds, sometimes thousands, collect in the same hibernaculum to spend winter together.  A hibernaculum is the place where animals hibernate.  You can build one in your yard to provide a nice warm spot for garter snakes to hide and live through the winter.  The basic idea is to create a labyrinth of tunnels with materials that absorb heat and stay warm for a long period of time. Start by finding a sunny, well-drained spot protected from cold winds.  It should not be too dry; however, snakes require adequate humidity levels so that they do not dehydrate.  Dig a pit deeper than the frost-line (in the Puget Lowlands, about 12-18.”)  Fill the hole with rocks, concrete blocks, bricks, slabs, black PVC drain pipes or other appropriate materials, creating many chambers at different levels, making sure there are open passages and several entrances.  Cap with an insulating layer of smaller rock rubble, or other heat absorbing material, making sure to keep entrances open.  Keep the area clear of vegetation that could grow up and shade your hibernaculum, but provide cover for emerging snakes in the form of logs, rocks, brush or uncut grass.

     Breeding season occurs in the spring as they emerge from hibernation.  During the summer, you can often find garter snakes hiding under black plastic, plywood or other materials that absorb solar radiation and in crevices next to warm bricks or rocks.  Garter snakes are also likely to take advantage of tunnels created by moles, voles and gophers.

     Besides weeds, rodents–mice and voles, (and the neighbor’s peacocks) are my worst pest problem.  They eat seeds and emerging seedlings.  My cat always seemed more interested birds and squirrels.  Now what predator could I encourage to control the rodents? … Hmmm…– Maybe foxes, or weasels or even a raptor?

(This article was first published in the Peninsula Gateway on August, 18 2010))

 

     Fruits evolved to offer animals a nutritious food, encouraging them to disperse the seeds of the plant.  Frugivores can be free of guilt—fruit is produced to be eaten!   You can be sure that a fruit will attract some kind of hungry animal just as a showy flower will attract a pollinator.  In fact many seeds must pass through the gut of an animal before they will germinate.

    Two of the top wildlife plants are oaks and pines.  Instead of fruit, these trees produce large, nutritious seeds.  It may seem strange that a tree could sacrifice so many of its seeds and still reproduce.  But by strategically producing bumper crops in some years and very little in others, the trees provide an erratic food supply to limit the population growth of the seedeaters.  Birds, squirrels and other small rodents disperse the seeds by caching them for later use.  Forgotten seeds may sprout and grow into new trees.

    Elderberries are next in importance.  Red Elderberry, Sambucus racemosa, is the most common in our area.  Blue Elderberry, S. caerulea, can also be found in more open sites.  Pileated Woodpeckers, Flickers, Steller’s Jays and many other birds eat these berries.  People eat them too, usually cooked or made into jelly or wine.  Raw Red Elderberries may cause nausea in people.

    Surprisingly, Poison Oak, Toxicodendron diversilobum, is listed as the next important species. Wren Tits, Thrushes, Flickers, Sapsuckers and other Woodpeckers eat its white berries.  The only places I have seen Poison Oak is on Cutt’s Island and Maury Island.  There is a saying: “Leaves of three, let it be; berries white, poisonous sight.”  Most people would not want this in their yard even with its high wildlife value!

    The most important native Brambles, for people and wildlife are Salmonberry, Rubus spectabilis, Blackcap Raspberry, R. leucodermis, and Thimbleberry, R. parviflorus.  Many birds eat these berries, including Robins, Thrushes, Towhees, Tanagers, Grosbeaks, Waxwings and Grouse.  Trailing Blackberry (Dewberry), R. ursinus is our only native blackberry; it often appears as a weed, but you may want to allow some of it to grow in a wild garden.  Himalayan and Evergreen Blackberries, although good for wildlife, are invasive non-natives and should be controlled.

    Many of our important berries are in the Heath family, Ericaceae. The most common are Salal, Gaultheria shallon and Evergreen Huckleberry, Vaccinium ovatum.   People and wildlife enjoy these and other huckleberries, including Red Huckleberry, V. parvifolium.  Manzanitas, Arctostaphylos sp., are more important in California, but we have two native species:  Kinnikinnick or Bearberry, A. uva-ursi, a popular groundcover, and Hairy Manzanita, A. columbiana.  Our only broad-leaved evergreen tree, the Pacific Madrone, Arbutus menziesii has red berries.  

    We have 3 species of Dogwood: a tree; Pacific Dogwood, Cornus nuttallii, a shrub; Redtwig Dogwood, C. sericea, and a groundcover; Bunchberry C. canadensis.  Grosbeaks, Waxwings and Woodpeckers eat dogwood fruits.

    Other fruiting natives include: Cascara, Rhamnus purshiana, Serviceberry, Amelanchier alnifolia, Gooseberries and Currants, Ribes sp., Oregon Grapes, Mahonia sp., Pacific Crabapple, Malus fusca, Black Hawthorn. Crataegus douglasii, Highbush Cranberries, Viburnum sp., Roses, Rosa sp., Honeysuckles, Lonicera sp. Mountain Ashes, Sorbus sp., Indian Plum, Oemleria cerasiformis, and Snowberry, Symphoricarpos albus.  Of these, Serviceberries, Gooseberries and Oregon Grapes are frequently eaten by people; often prepared into jellies.

    In addition to providing food for wildlife and people, berries are often an attractive feature in the landscape during fall and winter, especially the ones with bright red berries.  Treat yourself and the local wildlife to a smorgasbord by planting some of these juicy selections.